Arabic Words in English: The Rich Influence of Arabic on English

Introduction: Arabic's Hidden Presence in English

Arabic words in English are far more numerous than most English speakers realize. Every time you use a word like "algebra," "algorithm," "coffee," "cotton," "magazine," or "zero," you are using a word that originated in Arabic. The influence of Arabic on English reflects a period in history when the Islamic world was the center of scientific, mathematical, and philosophical achievement, and its knowledge flowed westward through trade, scholarship, and cultural exchange.

English borrowed Arabic words primarily during the Middle Ages, when Arabic-speaking scholars preserved and expanded upon Greek and Roman learning while Europe was in a period of relative intellectual stagnation. Arabic words typically entered English through intermediary languages—Spanish, Italian, French, or Medieval Latin—as European scholars translated Arabic texts on mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and philosophy. Other Arabic words in English arrived through the channels of international trade, as Arab merchants dominated commerce across the Mediterranean, the Indian Ocean, and the Silk Road.

This article explores the remarkable scope of Arabic's contribution to English, from the foundational vocabulary of mathematics to the everyday language of food and fabric.

How Arabic Words Entered English

Arabic words reached English through several historical pathways, each connected to specific periods and domains of cultural contact.

Through Medieval Spain

The Iberian Peninsula, where Muslim and Christian cultures coexisted for nearly eight centuries (711–1492), was the most important conduit for Arabic vocabulary entering European languages. The great translation centers of Toledo and Córdoba produced Latin translations of Arabic scientific and philosophical works, and many Arabic terms were adopted into the Latin versions. From Latin, these words spread to French, Spanish, and eventually English. Words like "algebra," "algorithm," and "alchemy" traveled this route.

Through the Crusades

The Crusades (1095–1291) brought Europeans into direct contact with the Islamic world, and Crusaders returned home with new goods, ideas, and vocabulary. Military terms, architectural concepts, and trade goods were among the borrowings from this period.

Through Italian and Mediterranean Trade

Italian city-states like Venice, Genoa, and Pisa were major trading partners with the Arab world, and many Arabic commercial and nautical terms entered Italian and then spread to other European languages. Words related to commerce, textiles, and navigation often arrived through this channel.

Through Direct Contact

In more recent centuries, British colonial presence in the Middle East and North Africa brought additional Arabic words into English, particularly terms related to local culture, geography, and customs.

Mathematics and the Arabic Legacy

The Arabic contribution to mathematics is among the most significant in human history, and it left a permanent mark on English vocabulary.

• Algebra — from Arabic al-jabr, meaning "the reunion of broken parts," from the title of the ninth-century mathematician al-Khwarizmi's influential treatise Kitab al-Jabr wa-l-Muqabala.
• Algorithm — a Latinized form of the name al-Khwarizmi himself, whose works introduced systematic computational methods to Europe.
• Zero — from Arabic sifr, meaning "empty" or "nothing," which also gave us the word "cipher." The concept of zero as a number, transmitted from India through Arabic mathematics, revolutionized European counting systems.
• Cipher — also from sifr, originally meaning zero, later extending to mean a code or secret writing system.
• Average — likely from Arabic awariya, referring to damaged goods in maritime trade, which came to mean the distribution of losses among merchants.
• Tariff — from Arabic ta'rifa, "notification" or "inventory of fees."

The Arabic numeral system itself—the digits 0 through 9 that the entire world now uses—was transmitted to Europe through Arabic mathematical texts, though the digits originated in India. Before this transmission, Europe relied on the far less practical Roman numeral system. The very foundation of modern computation rests on Arabic mathematical vocabulary and concepts.

Astronomy: Arabic Names Written in the Stars

During the Islamic Golden Age, Arab astronomers cataloged the stars and refined astronomical instruments with a precision that surpassed anything in the contemporary European world. Their legacy lives on in the names of many stars and astronomical terms:

• Aldebaran — from al-dabaran, "the follower" (it follows the Pleiades)
• Algol — from al-ghul, "the ghoul" (a variable star in Perseus)
• Altair — from al-ta'ir, "the flying one"
• Betelgeuse — from yad al-jawza, "the hand of the central one"
• Deneb — from dhanab, "tail"
• Rigel — from rijl, "foot"
• Vega — from waqi', "falling" (short for the falling eagle)
• Fomalhaut — from fam al-hut, "mouth of the fish"

Astronomical instruments and concepts also carry Arabic names. The zenith (from samt al-ra's, "direction of the head"), nadir (from nazir, "opposite"), and azimuth (from al-sumut, "the directions") are all Arabic contributions. The word almanac (from al-manakh, "the climate" or "the calendar") also derives from Arabic.

Chemistry and Alchemy

The very word "chemistry" descends from "alchemy," which comes from Arabic al-kimiya. Arab alchemists made enormous practical contributions to the science that would become chemistry, and many of their terms survive in modern English:

• Alchemy — from al-kimiya, the art of transmutation
• Alcohol — from al-kuhl, originally referring to a fine metallic powder (kohl), later applied to distilled substances
• Alkali — from al-qili, "the ashes of saltwort," a plant used in making potash
• Elixir — from al-iksir, the philosopher's stone or a substance believed to transform base metals into gold
• Alembic — from al-anbiq, a distillation apparatus

The laboratory techniques of distillation, crystallization, and sublimation were refined by Arabic-speaking chemists, and the vocabulary associated with these processes entered European languages through translated Arabic texts.

Trade and Commerce

The Arab world's dominance of international trade for centuries ensured that many commercial terms passed into English:

• Tariff — from ta'rifa, a schedule of fees or duties
• Magazine — from makhazin, "storehouses" (originally a military storehouse, later a periodical publication)
• Bazaar — from Persian through Arabic, an open marketplace
• Caravan — from karawan, a group of travelers crossing a desert
• Admiral — from amir al-bahr, "commander of the sea"
• Arsenal — from dar al-sina'a, "house of manufacture," a place for making or storing weapons
• Check (as in banking) — from sakk, a written authorization for payment

Food and Drink

Arabic words in English food vocabulary reflect centuries of trade in agricultural products and the Arab world's cultivation of crops that later spread to Europe:

• Coffee — from qahwa, originally a term for wine or an invigorating drink, later specifically coffee
• Sugar — from sukkar (ultimately from Sanskrit sharkara)
• Lemon — from laymun
• Lime — from lima
• Orange — from naranj (via Spanish naranja; the initial "n" was lost in French)
• Apricot — from al-barquq
• Artichoke — from al-kharshuf
• Saffron — from za'faran
• Tamarind — from tamr hindi, "Indian date"
• Candy — from qandi, "made of sugar"
• Syrup — from sharab, "a drink"
• Sorbet — from sharbat, a sweet iced drink

The coffee trade alone has had an outsized impact on English vocabulary. The word "mocha" comes from the Yemeni port city of Mocha, once a major center of the coffee trade. The entire culture of the coffeehouse, which played a crucial role in European intellectual and political life, was inspired by the Arabic tradition of qahwa.

Textiles and Materials

The Arab world was a major center of textile production and trade, and many fabric names in English come from Arabic:

• Cotton — from qutn
• Muslin — from mawsili, referring to the city of Mosul in Iraq
• Damask — from Damascus, the Syrian capital famous for its textiles
• Gauze — possibly from qazz, raw silk
• Satin — from zaytuni, referring to the Chinese city of Quanzhou (Zaitun), via Arabic trade routes
• Taffeta — from tafta, "twisted" or "woven"

Cultural and Everyday Words

Beyond technical and commercial vocabulary, Arabic words in English include many cultural and general terms:

• Safari — from safar, "journey" (via Swahili)
• Harem — from haram, "forbidden" or "sacred"
• Minaret — from manara, "lighthouse" or "place of fire"
• Mosque — from masjid, "place of prostration"
• Mattress — from matrah, "something thrown down," a place where cushions are placed
• Sofa — from suffa, a raised platform with cushions
• Assassin — from hashshashin, a group associated with hash consumption during the Crusades
• Ghoul — from ghul, an evil spirit in Arabic mythology
• Hazard — from al-zahr, a dice game
• Lute — from al-'ud, "the wood," a stringed instrument
• Guitar — from qitar (via Greek kithara, influenced by Arabic)

The Arabic influence on English vocabulary is a testament to the vibrant exchange of knowledge and goods between civilizations. Every Arabic word in English carries within it a story of cultural connection.

The "Al-" Prefix: A Telltale Sign

One of the easiest ways to identify Arabic words in English is to look for the prefix "al-," which is simply the Arabic definite article (meaning "the"). When Arabic words were borrowed into European languages, the article was often borrowed along with the noun, becoming a permanent part of the word:

• Algebra — al-jabr
• Algorithm — al-Khwarizmi
• Alcohol — al-kuhl
• Alkali — al-qili
• Alchemy — al-kimiya
• Almanac — al-manakh

Star names beginning with "Al-" are almost certainly Arabic in origin: Aldebaran, Algol, Altair. This prefix is one of the most visible markers of Arabic linguistic heritage in English.

Conclusion

The influence of Arabic words in English is both wider and deeper than most people imagine. Arabic gave English the vocabulary of modern mathematics, the names of many stars, the foundations of chemistry, and hundreds of words for everyday objects, foods, and concepts. This linguistic legacy reflects a historical reality in which the Arabic-speaking world was the intellectual and commercial center of a vast network connecting East and West.

Understanding Arabic words in English enriches our appreciation of the history of the English language and reminds us that languages grow through contact, exchange, and mutual influence. English is richer for its Arabic heritage, just as it is richer for its borrowings from Latin, Greek, French, and dozens of other languages.